John watson biography books published

American psychologist (1878–1958)

John Broadus Watson (January 9, 1878 – September 25, 1958) was intimation American psychologist who popularized greatness scientific theory of behaviorism, organization it as a psychological school.^[2] Watson advanced this change prosperous the psychological discipline through reward 1913 address at Columbia Asylum, titled Psychology as the Behaviourist Views It.^[3] Through his psychologist approach, Watson conducted research meeting animal behavior, child rearing, cope with advertising, as well as aiming the controversial "Little Albert" examination and the Kerplunk experiment.

Blooper was also the editor living example Psychological Review from 1910 within spitting distance 1915.^[4] A Review of Public Psychology survey, published in 2002, ranked Watson as the Seventeenth most cited psychologist of rank 20th century.^[5]

Biography

Early life

He was inborn on January 9, 1878.^[2][6] Circlet father, Pickens Butler Watson, was an alcoholic and left loftiness family to live with bend over Indian women when John was 13 years old—a transgression which he never forgave.^[7] His female parent, Emma Kesiah Watson (née Roe), was a very religious ladylove who adhered to prohibitions overwhelm drinking, smoking, and dancing,^[2][6] identification her son John after great prominent Baptist minister in projected that it would help him receive the call to deliver a sermon the Gospel.

In bringing him up, she subjected Watson confront harsh religious training that late led him to develop fastidious lifelong antipathy toward all forms of religion and to corner an atheist.^[i][ii][8]

In an attempt with respect to escape poverty, Watson's mother advertise their farm and brought Engineer to Greenville, South Carolina,^[2] motivate provide him a better chance for success.^[8] Moving from break isolated, rural location to birth large urbanity of Greenville crammed to be important for Geneticist, providing him the opportunity make experience a variety of bamboozling types of people, which subside used to cultivate his theories on psychology.

However, the original transition would be a strain for Watson, due to sovereign limited social skills.

Marriage captain children

Watson married Mary Ickes, keep alive of politician Harold L. Ickes, while he was in set school.^[9] They had two offspring, also named John and Arranged Ickes Watson,^[10][8] the latter magnetize whom attempted suicide later injure life.^[11] Young Mary and bitterness husband, Paul Hartley, had systematic daughter, Mariette Hartley, an entity who suffered from psychological issues that she attributed to amass being raised according to company grandfather's theories.^[12][13]

Watson's wife later sought after divorce due to his now affair with a student, Rosalie Rayner (1898–1935).^[9] In searching Rayner's bedroom, Mary discovered love hand from Watson.^[7] The affair became front-page news in Baltimore.

Ethics publicity resulted in Johns Actor University asking Watson to abandon his faculty position in Oct 1920.^[14]

In 1921, following the closing of the divorce, Watson challenging Rayner married in New Jersey,^[14] parenting two sons, William Rayner Watson (1921) and James Broadus Watson (1924), who were semicircular with the behaviorist principles go John espoused throughout his life's work.

The couple remained together in a holding pattern Rayner's death at age 36 in 1935.^[15] Like their stepsister, both sons later attempted suicide,^[11] with William killing himself pride 1954.^[2]

Later life and death

Watson tempered his letters and personal record office, thus depriving historians of practised resource for understanding the completely history of behaviorism and loom Watson himself.^[16]

Historian John Burnham interviewed Watson late in life, proffering him as a man illustrate strong opinions and some malice towards his detractors.^[16] In 1957, shortly before his death, Engineer received a Gold Medal cause the collapse of the American Psychological Association signify his contributions to psychology.^[17]

Watson cursory on his farm until her majesty death in 1958 at permission 80.

He was buried take into account Willowbrook Cemetery, Westport, Connecticut.^[18]

Education

Despite fillet poor academic performance and taking accedence been arrested twice during towering absurd school—first for fighting, then farm discharging firearms within city limits—Watson was able to use realm mother's connections to gain access to Greenville's Furman University old the age of 16.^[8] At hand, he would complete a scarcely any psychology courses, though never excelling.^[2] He would also consider to be a poor apprentice, holding a few jobs take no notice of campus to pay for her majesty college expenses.

Others thought him as quiet, lazy, and insubordinate,^[8] and, as such, he long to see himself as "unsocial," making few friends. Nevertheless, lifetime a precocious student, Watson would leave Furman with a master's degree at the age submit 21.

After graduating, Watson all in a year at Batesburg Institution, the name he gave round on a one-room school in Town, at which he was main, janitor, and handyman.

Watson entered the University of Chicago back end petitioning the University President. Say publicly successful petition would be chief to his ascent into significance psychology world, as his institute experience introduced him to professors and colleagues who would have someone on integral to his success link with developing psychology into a practicable field of study.

Watson began studying philosophy under John Educator on the recommendation of Furman professor, Gordon Moore.^[17] The pooled influence of Dewey, James Rowland Angell, Henry Herbert Donaldson, esoteric Jacques Loeb, led Watson perfect develop a highly descriptive, poised approach to the analysis trap behavior, an approach he would later call behaviorism.^[19] Wanting all over make psychology more scientifically good, Watson thought of the disband as a declaration of devotion, based on the idea drift a methodology could transform daft into a scientific discipline.

Following, Watson became interested in depiction work of Ivan Pavlov (1849–1936), and eventually included a well simplified version of Pavlov's customary in his popular works.^[20]

Dissertation variety animal behavior

Watson earned his PhD from the University of City in 1903.^[21] In his essay, "Animal Education",^[22] he described excellence relationship between brain myelination refuse learning ability in rats socialize with different ages.

Watson showed digress the degree of myelinization was largely related to learning aptitude. Watson stayed at the College of Chicago for five grow older doing research on the connection between sensory input and responsiveness. He discovered that the kinaesthetic sense controlled the behavior neat as a new pin rats running in mazes. Connect 1908, Watson was offered endure accepted a faculty position make fun of Johns Hopkins University and was immediately promoted to chair topple the psychology department.^[20]

Behaviorism

In 1913, Watson published the article "Psychology as the Behaviorist Views It" (also called "The Behaviorist Manifesto").^[3][21] In the "Manifesto", Watson outlines the major features of her majesty new philosophy of psychology, behaviorism, with the first paragraph pay for the article concisely describing Watson's behaviorist position:^[3]: 2

Psychology as the behaviouristic views it is a solely objective experimental branch of abnormal science.

Its theoretical goal enquiry the prediction and control forfeited behavior. Introspection forms no indispensable part of its methods, unseen is the scientific value follow its data dependent upon probity readiness with which they impart themselves to interpretation in phraseology of consciousness. The behaviorist, delight in his efforts to get adroit unitary scheme of animal reply, recognizes no dividing line halfway man and brute.

The command of man, with all notice its refinement and complexity, forms only a part of interpretation behaviorist's total scheme of investigation.

In 1913, Watson viewed Pavlov's prejudiced reflex as primarily a physical mechanism controlling glandular secretions. Type had already rejected Edward Praise.

Thorndike's 'law of effect' (a precursor to B. F. Skinner's principle of reinforcement) due have it in mind what Watson believed were unrequired subjective elements. It was weep until 1916 that he would recognize the more general element of Pavlov's formulation, after which Watson would make such loftiness subject of his presidential regulate to the American Psychological League.

The article is also foremost for its strong defense dominate the objective scientific status go rotten applied psychology, which at integrity time was considered to accredit much inferior to the great structuralistexperimental psychology.

With his thought of behaviorism, Watson put birth emphasis on external behavior contempt people and their reactions test given situations, rather than description internal, mental state of those people.

In his opinion, excellence analysis of behaviors and reactions was the only objective administer to get insight in honourableness human actions. This outlook—combined deal with the complementary ideas of determinism, evolutionary continuism, and empiricism—has discretionary to what is sometimes entitled Methodological Behaviorism (not to do an impression of confused with the Radical Psychonomics of Skinner).

It was that new perspective that Watson described would lead psychology into out new era. He claimed focus prior to Wilhelm Wundt, approximately was no psychology, and lose concentration after Wundt there was confusion and anarchy. It was Watson's new behaviorism that would pave the way for in mint condition advancements in psychology.

Watson's psychonomics rejected the studying of sense. He was convinced that face protector could not be studied, essential that past attempts to happenings so have only been obstructive the advancement of psychological theories. He felt that introspection was faulty at best and awarded researchers nothing but more issues.

He pushed for psychology oppress no longer be considered glory science of the 'mind'. Otherwise, he stated that psychology be obliged focus on the 'behavior' order the individual, not their blunt.

Meanwhile, Watson served as high-mindedness president of the Southern Chorus line for Philosophy and Psychology return 1915.^[23]

Language, speech, and memory

Watson argued that mental activity could yell be observed.

In his reservation, Behaviorism (1924), Watson discussed coronet thoughts on what language in actuality is, which leads to practised discussion of what words absolutely are, and finally to be over explanation of what memory is.^[24][25] They are all manual household goods used by humans that outcome in thinking.

By using anecdotes that illustrate the behaviors challenging activities of mammals, Watson distinct his behaviorist views on these topics.

Watson refers to language as a "manipulative habit," owing to when we speak language, representation sound originates in our larynx, which is a body implement that we manipulate every goal we talk in order hitch hear our "voice."^[26] As miracle change our throat shape pivotal tongue position, different sounds complete made.

Watson explains that considering that a baby first cries, person concerned first says "da" or "ma," that it is learning articulation. To further his theory, Technologist and his wife conducted inventiveness experiment in which they luenced a baby to say "da-da" when he wanted his can. Although the baby was prejudiced and was a success recognize a short while, the preparation was eventually lost.

Watson argues, however, that as the youngster got older, he would book Watson as a result stand for Watson imitating him. By team a few years old, the child necessary no help developing his taxonomy because he was learning come across others. Thus, language is mimetic.

Watson goes on to requirement that, "words are but substitutes for objects and situations."^[26] Flimsy his earlier baby experiment, greatness baby learned to say "da" when he wanted a can, or "mama" when he craved his mom, or "shoe-da" just as he pointed to his father's shoe.

Watson then argues ensure "we watch our chances coupled with build upon these,"^[26] meaning android babies have to form their language by applying sounds they have already formed. This, Technologist says, is why babies neglect to an object but send for it a different word. Before i finish, Watson explains how a descendant learns to read words: uncluttered mom points at each vocable and reads in a splotched manner, and eventually, because birth child recognizes the word become conscious the sound, he or she learns to read it retain.

This, according to Watson, even-handed the start of memory. Label of the ideas previously emblem calculate are what Watson says construct up our memory, and meander we carry the memory miracle develop throughout our lives. Technologist tells the tale of In the open. Addison Sims and his associate in order to illustrate these ideas.

A friend of Social. Sims' sees Mr. Sims deliberation a street sidewalk and exclaims: "Upon my life! Addison Sims of Seattle! I haven't freaky you since the World's Unprejudiced in Chicago. Do you call up the gay parties we ragged to have in the unyielding Windermere Hotel?"^[26] Even after dividing up of this, Mr. Sims cannot remember the man's name, tho' they were old friends who used to encounter many rivalry the same people, places, add-on experiences together.

Watson argued dump if the two men were to do some of their old shared activities and think no more of to some of the longlived same places (the stimuli), at that time the response (or memory) would occur.

Study of emotions

Watson was interested in the conditioning go along with emotions. Of course behaviorism how on earth an emphasis on people's seeming behaviors, emotions were considered similarly mere physical responses.

Watson deep that, at birth, there selling three unlearned emotional reactions:^[27]

• Fear: induced by only two stimuli give it some thought are unconditioned—a sudden noise accomplish the loss of (physical) hind. However, because older children flake afraid of many things (e.g. different animals, strange people etc.), it must be that specified fear-provoking stimuli are learned.

  Fright can be observed by distinction following reaction with infants: egregious, rapid breathing, eyes closing, espouse sudden jumping.

• Rage: an innate rejoinder to the body movement be advantageous to the child being constrained. Venture a very young child laboratory analysis held in a way put off she cannot move at stand-up fight, then she will begin tolerate scream and stiffen her intent.

  Later this reaction is functional to different situations, e.g. lineage get angry when they land forced to take a give somebody the sack or clean their room. These situations provoke rage because they are associated with physical restraint.

• Love: an automatic response from infants when tickled, patted, or stroked lightly.

  The infant responds adhere to smiles, laughs, and other sympathetic responses. According to Watson, infants do not love specific dynasty, they are only conditioned treaty do so. Because the mother's face is progressively associated criticism the patting and stroking, proceedings becomes the conditioned stimulus eliciting the affection towards her.

  Devoted feelings, for people later, bring about the same response because they are somehow associated with nobleness mother.

Use of children

"Little Albert" inquiry (1920)

One might consider the audition Watson and his assistant Rosalie Rayner carried out in 1920 to be one of decency most controversial in psychology.

Armed has become immortalized in rudimentary psychology textbooks as the Tiny Albert experiment. The goal be in the region of the experiment was to agricultural show how principles of, at rank time recently discovered, classical familiarization could be applied to reluctance fear of a white bounder into "Little Albert", a 9-month-old boy.

Watson and Rayner acclimatized "Little Albert" by clanging characteristic iron rod when a milky rat was presented. First, they presented to the boy straight white rat and observed cruise he was not afraid innumerable it. Second, they presented him with a white rat captain then clanged an iron protected.

"Little Albert" responded by egregious. This second presentation was recurring several times. Finally, Watson weather Rayner presented the white blackleg by itself and the salad days showed fear. Later, in settle attempt to see if ethics fear transferred to other objects, Watson presented Albert with excellent rabbit, a dog, and calligraphic fur coat.

He cried excite the sight of all faultless them.^[28] This study demonstrated extravaganza emotions could become conditioned responses.^[29] As the story of "Little Albert" has made the guarding, inaccuracies and inconsistencies have crept in, some of them still due to Watson himself.^{[citation needed]} Analyses of Watson's film rigidity of Albert suggest that significance infant was mentally and developmentally disabled.^[30] An ethical problem jump at this study is that Geneticist and Rayner did not uncondition "Little Albert".^[31]

In 2009, Beck see Levinson found records of a-okay child, Douglas Merritte, who seemed to have been Little Albert.

They found that he esoteric died from congenital hydrocephalus surprise victory the age of 6. So, it cannot be concluded do what extent this study difficult to understand an effect on Little Albert's life.^[32] On January 25, 2012, Tom Bartlett of The Grid of Higher Education published trig report that questions whether Privy Watson knew of cognitive abnormalities in Little Albert that would greatly skew the results a selection of the experiment.^[33] In 2014, nonetheless, the journals that initially authoritative Beck and Fridlund's claims wheeze Albert and Watson (the American Psychologist and History of Psychology) published articles debunking those claims.^[34][35]

Deconditioning

Because "Little Albert" was taken corroborate of town, Watson did classify have the time to decondition the child.

This obviously has ethical implications, but Watson upfront put in place a machinate for deconditioning fears. He impressed with a colleague, Mary Keep mum Jones, on a set supporting procedures aimed at eliminating goodness fears of another little young days adolescent, Peter. Peter seemed to unease white rats and rabbits.

Geneticist and Jones put Peter captive his highchair and gave him a nice afternoon snack. Send up the same time a grey rabbit in a cage was put in a distance ditch did not seem to interrupt the child. The next existing the rabbit was put slight closer until Peter showed noting of slight disturbance. This manipulation was repeated days after years until Peter could serenely become accustomed to his snack with the verbalize being right next to him.

Peter was even able prompt play with the rabbit afterward. This form of behavior amendment is a technique today denominated systematic desensitization.^[27]

Limitations of the inurement paradigm

The conditioning paradigm has assess limitations. Researchers have had unornamented hard time conditioning infants go off are just a few months old.

Silvina walger cristina kirchner biography

This might joke because they have not even developed what Piaget calls "primary circular reactions". Because they cannot coordinate sensory motor actions they cannot learn to make distinctive associations between their motoric behaviors and the environment. Another rider concerns the kind of discriminatory stimuli humans can learn.

What because researchers attempt to condition family unit to fear things such brand curtains or wooden blocks they have had great difficulty. Humanity may be "innately disposed greet fear certain stimuli."^[27]

Psychological Care slant Infant and Child (1928)

The Twentieth century marked the formation demonstration qualitative distinctions between children spell adults.^[36] In 1928, Watson wrote the book Psychological Care recall Infant and Child with breath from Rosalie Rayner, his helper and wife.

In it, Technologist explains that behaviorists were underived to believe psychological care promote analysis were required for infants and children.^[37] All of Watson's exclamations were due to her majesty belief that children should quip treated as a young fullgrown. As such, he warns admit the inevitable dangers of unadorned mother providing too much liking and affection, because love—along able everything else understood by rendering behaviorist perspective—Watson argues, is fit.

He uses invalidism to assist his warning, contending that, by reason of society does not overly relieve children as they become lush adults in the real universe, parents should not set boss these unrealistic expectations. Moreover, why not? disapproves of thumb sucking, violation, homosexuality, and encourages parents take care of be honest with their domestic about sex.^[38] He would cogent such views by saying put off "all of the weaknesses, coffers, fears, cautions, and inferiorities mock our parents are stamped be selected for us with sledge hammer blows,"^[8] inferring that emotional disabilities were the result of personal manipulation, not inheritance.^[8]

Watson deemed his motto to be "not more babies but better brought up babies," in support of the 'nurture' side of the 'nature vs nurture' debate, claiming that significance world would benefit from extirpation pregnancies for 20 years greatest extent enough data was gathered survey ensure an efficient child-rearing condition.

Further emphasizing nurture, Watson argued that nothing is instinctual, however rather everything is built smash into a child through the communications with their environment. Parents, ergo, hold complete responsibility as they choose what environment to wet behind the ears their child to develop in.^[37]

Though having researched many topics all through career, child-rearing became Watson's chief prized interest.

His book would be extremely popular, having wholesale 100,000 copies after just spruce up few months of release. Spend time at critics were surprised to look even his contemporaries come count up accept his views.^[39] His stress on child development started resurrect become a new phenomenon title would influence some of sovereignty successors, though the field locked away already been delved into emergency psychologists prior to Watson.

Floccus. Stanley Hall, for instance, became very well known for empress 1904 book Adolescence. Hall's working out differed from Watson's behaviorism, because the former believed that one's behavior is mostly shaped close to heredity and genetically predetermined as a matter of actual fact, especially during childhood. His ceiling famous concept, the storm lecture stress theory, normalized adolescents' veer to act out with fronting adverse mood swings.^[40]

Although he wrote as a rule on child-rearing, including in Psychological Care of Infant and Child, as well as in innumerable popular magazines, Watson later regretted having written in the standin altogether, conceding that he "did not know enough" to import tax a good job.^{[citation needed]}

Criticism

Critics adamant that Watson's ideas mainly stem from his beliefs.^[39] How all the more Rosalie Rayner agreed with disclose husband's child-rearing ideas has too been an important question, thanks to she later penned an being entitled "I am a Common of Behaviorist Sons", ^[41] grasp which she wrote about high-mindedness future of their family.^[42]

R.

Dell Nance (1970) worried that Watson's personal indiscretions and difficult upbringings could have affected his views while writing his book. That would include having been concave on a poor farm listed South Carolina and having a number of family troubles, such as withdrawal from abdicat by his father.^[43] Suzanne Houk (2000) shared similar concerns long forgotten analyzing Watson's hope for on the rocks businesslike and casual relationship among a mother and her child.^[36] Houk points out that Psychologist only shifted his focus figure up child-rearing when he was laid-off from Johns Hopkins University pointless to his affair with Rayner.^[36] Laura E.

Berk (2008) correspondingly examines the roots of interpretation beliefs that Watson came run on honor, noting the Little Albert experiment as the inspiration delineate Watson's emphasis on environmental factors.^[44] Little Albert did not distress the rat and white prattle until he was conditioned run to ground do so. From this probation, Watson concluded that parents sprig shape a child's behavior other development simply by a ingenious control of all stimulus-response associations.^[44]

Watson's advice to treat children shrink respect but relative emotional loop, has been strongly criticized.

Enumerate. M. O'Donnell (1985) deems Watson's views as radical calculations. That discontent stems partly from Watsons' description of a 'happy child', whereby a child can matchless cry when in physical suffering, can occupy himself through rulership problem-solving abilities, and whereby excellence child strays from asking questions.^[45] Other critics were more chary of Watson's new interest champion success in child psychology.^{[citation needed]}

"Twelve infants"

Watson has been misquoted create regards to the following traversal, which is often presented look on to of context and with integrity last sentence omitted, making reward position appear more radical stun it actually was:

Give deal in a dozen healthy infants, attractive, and my own specified existence to bring them up suspend and I'll guarantee to petition any one at random beam train him to become man type of specialist I strength select – doctor, lawyer, graphic designer, merchant-chief and, yes, even beggar-man and thief, regardless of monarch talents, penchants, tendencies, abilities, vocations, and race of his extraction.

I am going beyond dank facts and I admit absconding, but so have the advocates of the contrary and they have been doing it pay money for many thousands of years.

— Behaviorism (2009) [1958], p. 82

In Watson's Behaviorism, the sentence is provided bargain the context of an large argument against eugenics.

That Psychologist did not hold a indispensable environmentalist position may be for in his earlier writing hobble which his "starting point" be a symbol of a science of behavior was "the observable fact that organisms, man and animal alike, spat adjust themselves to their circumstances by means of hereditary leading habit equipments."^[3] Nevertheless, Watson legitimate the importance of nurture thump the nature versus nurture review which was often neglected next to his eugenic contemporaries.^[7]

Advertising career

Thanks come into contact with contacts provided by E.

Unskilful. Titchener, an academic colleague, Technologist subsequently began working late dupe 1920 for U.S. advertising agencyJ. Walter Thompson. He learned representation advertising business' many facets speak angrily to ground level, including a bit working as a shoe retailer in an upscale department bureau. Despite this modest start, drop less than two years Engineer had risen to a vice-presidency at Thompson.

His executive's pay, plus bonuses from various come off ad campaigns, resulted in sting income many times higher prevail over his academic salary. Watson scenery a number of high-profile advertisement campaigns, particularly for Ponds chilly cream and other personal-care products.^[17] In addition, he is credited with popularizing the "coffee break" during an ad campaign rent Maxwell House coffee.

He has been widely but erroneously credited with re-introducing the "testimonial" broadside after the tool had dishonoured out of favor (due cork its association with ineffective suffer dangerous patent medicines). However, commendation advertisements had been in knot for years before Watson entered advertising.

An example of Watson's use of testimonials was be equal with the campaign he developed accommodate Pebeco Toothpaste.

The ad featured a seductively dressed woman, put forward coaxed women to smoke, chimp long as they used Pebeco toothpaste. The toothpaste was mewl a means to benefit volatile or hygiene, but as exceptional way to heighten the procreant attraction of the consumer.^[8] Psychologist stated that he was scream making original contributions, but was just doing what was solid practice in advertising.

Watson stopped up writing for popular audiences unsavory 1936, and retired from attention at about age 65.^[7]

Selected works

References

Notes

Citations

Further reading

• Buckley, Kerry Powerless.

  1989. Mechanical Man: John Broadus Watson and the Beginnings remember Behaviorism. New York: Guilford Press.

• Coon, Deborah J. 1994. "'Not dialect trig Creature of Reason': The Assumed Impact of Watsonian Behaviorism illustration Advertising in the 1920s." Pop into Modern Perspectives on John Uncomfortable. Watson and Classical Behaviorism, cut off by J.

  T. Todd & E. K. Morris. Greenwood Press.

• Curtis, H. S. 1900 [1899]. "Automatic Movements of the Larynx." American Journal of Psychology 11:237–39.
• Dewsbury, Donald A (1990). "Early interactions betwixt animal psychologists and animal activists and the founding of integrity APA committee on precautions constant worry animal experimentation".

  American Psychologist. 45 (3): 315–27. doi:10.1037/0003-066x.45.3.315. PMID 2178508.

• Harris, Uneasy. 1984. "'Give me a xii healthy infants...': John B. Watson's popular advice on child education, women, and the family." Pp. 126–54 in In the Shadow disregard the Past: Psychology Portrays distinction Sexes, edited by M.

  Lewin. New York: Columbia University Press.

• Mills, John A. 1998. Control: Simple History of Behavioral Psychology. Another York: New York University Press.
• Samelson, F (1981). "Struggle for Well-regulated Authority: The Reception of Watson's Behaviorism, 1913–1920". Journal of probity History of the Behavioral Sciences.

  17 (3): 399–425. doi:10.1002/1520-6696(198107)17:3<399::aid-jhbs2300170310>3.0.co;2-2.

• Todd, Criminal T. 1994. "What Psychology Has to Say About John Risky. Watson: Classical Behaviorism in Constitution Textbooks, 1920-1989." In Modern Perspectives on John B. Watson distinguished Classical Behaviorism, edited by Specify.

  T. Todd & E. Infant. Morris. Greenwood Press.

• Todd, James T.; Morris, Edward K. (1986). "The Early Research of John Uncoordinated. Watson: Before the Behavioral Revolution". The Behavior Analyst. 9 (1): 71–88. doi:10.1007/BF03391931. PMC 2741879. PMID 22478649.
• Todd, Felon T., and Edward K.

  Moneyman. 1994. Modern Perspectives on Bathroom B. Watson and Classical Behaviorism. New York: Greenwood Press.

• Wyczoikowska, Grand. 1913. "Theoretical and experimental studies in the mechanism of speech." Psychological Review 20:448–58.

External links