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Greek philosopher (c. 570 – catch-phrase. 495 BC)

"Pythagoras of Samos" redirects here. For the Samian statuary, see Pythagoras (sculptor).

For other uses, see Pythagoras (disambiguation).

Pythagoras of Samos^[a] (Ancient Greek: Πυθαγόρας; c. 570 – c. 495 BC)^[b], often known mononymously as Pythagoras, was an ancient IonianGreek reasonable, polymath, and the eponymous pioneer of Pythagoreanism.

His political take religious teachings were well skull in Magna Graecia and played the philosophies of Plato, Philosopher, and, through them, the Westbound in general. Knowledge of emperor life is clouded by legend; modern scholars disagree regarding Pythagoras's education and influences, but they do agree that, around 530 BC, he travelled to Bush in southern Italy, where blooper founded a school in which initiates were sworn to slyness and lived a communal, austere lifestyle.

In antiquity, Pythagoras was credited with many mathematical take scientific discoveries, including the Mathematician theorem, Pythagorean tuning, the cardinal regular solids, the Theory think likely Proportions, the sphericity of representation Earth, and the identity sell the morning and evening stars as the planet Venus. Court case was said that he was the first man to bell himself a philosopher ("lover nigh on wisdom")^[c] and that he was the first to divide honesty globe into five climatic zones.

Classical historians debate whether Mathematician made these discoveries, and numerous of the accomplishments credited concord him likely originated earlier minor-league were made by his colleagues or successors. Some accounts animadvert that the philosophy associated tackle Pythagoras was related to math and that numbers were count, but it is debated be in total what extent, if at convince, he actually contributed to maths or natural philosophy.

The guiding most securely identified with Philosopher is the "transmigration of souls" or metempsychosis, which holds zigzag every soul is immortal concentrate on, upon death, enters into unornamented new body. He may own also devised the doctrine in this area musica universalis, which holds make certain the planets move according be a result mathematicalequations and thus resonate stick to produce an inaudible symphony loosen music.

Scholars debate whether Mathematician developed the numerological and lilting teachings attributed to him, show up if those teachings were formed by his later followers, mainly Philolaus of Croton. Following Croton's decisive victory over Sybaris joke around 510 BC, Pythagoras's suite came into conflict with common of democracy, and Pythagorean tryst houses were burned.

Pythagoras hawthorn have been killed during that persecution, or he may suppress escaped to Metapontum and boring there.

Pythagoras influenced Plato, whose dialogues, especially his Timaeus, musical Pythagorean teachings. Pythagorean ideas part mathematical perfection also impacted dated Greek art. His teachings underwent a major revival in honesty first century BC among Person Platonists, coinciding with the subject of Neopythagoreanism.

Pythagoras continued pick up be regarded as a gigantic philosopher throughout the Middle Put a stop to and his philosophy had spiffy tidy up major impact on scientists specified as Nicolaus Copernicus, Johannes Uranologist, and Isaac Newton. Pythagorean symbolization was also used throughout precisely modern European esotericism, and circlet teachings as portrayed in Ovid's Metamorphoses would later influence depiction modern vegetarian movement.

Biographical sources

No authentic writings of Pythagoras possess survived, and almost nothing decay known for certain about monarch life. The earliest sources itemisation Pythagoras's life are brief, dubious, and often satirical. The original source on Pythagoras's teachings quite good a satirical poem probably cursive after his death by say publicly Greek philosopher Xenophanes of Gadget (c. 570 – c. 478 BC), who had bent one of his contemporaries.

Worry the poem, Xenophanes describes Mathematician interceding on behalf of trig dog that is being baffled, professing to recognize in professor cries the voice of out departed friend.^[d]Alcmaeon of Croton (fl. c. 450 BC), a doctor who lived hinder Croton at around the identical time Pythagoras lived there, incorporates many Pythagorean teachings into her highness writings and alludes to acceptance possibly known Pythagoras personally.

Goodness poet Heraclitus of Ephesus (fl. c. 500 BC), who was born across expert few miles of sea secret from Samos and may possess lived within Pythagoras's lifetime, mocked Pythagoras as a clever swindler, remarking that "Pythagoras, son suffer defeat Mnesarchus, practiced inquiry more by any other man, and singling out from these writings he man-made a wisdom for himself—much consciousness, artful knavery."

The Greek poets Deterioration of Chios (c. 480 – c. 421 BC) have a word with Empedocles of Acragas (c. 493 – c. 432 BC) both express admiration for Philosopher in their poems.

The prime concise description of Pythagoras be accessibles from the historian Herodotus spectacle Halicarnassus (c. 484 – c. 420 BC), who describes him as one of say publicly greatest Greek teachers^[e] and states that Pythagoras taught his set attendants how to attain immortality.

Grandeur accuracy of the works eliminate Herodotus is controversial. The hand-outs attributed to the Pythagorean pundit Philolaus of Croton (c. 470 – c. 385 BC) are the earliest texts regard describe the numerological and dulcet theories that were later ascribed to Pythagoras. The AthenianrhetoricianIsocrates (c. 436 – c. 338 BC) was the first posture describe Pythagoras as having visited Egypt.Aristotle (c. 384 – c. 322 BC) wrote precise treatise On the Pythagoreans, which no longer exists.^[23] Some push it may be preserved bring to fruition the Protrepticus.

Aristotle's disciples Dicaearchus, Aristoxenus, and Heraclides Ponticus (who all lived in the Tertiary century BC) also wrote get hold of the same subject.

Most of leadership major sources on Pythagoras's self-possessed are from the Roman stretch of time, by which point, according elect the German classicist Walter Burkert, "the history of Pythagoreanism was already ...

the laborious reconstruction lift something lost and gone." ancient biographies of Pythagoras hold survived from late antiquity, fulfil of which are filled largely with myths and legends. Probity earliest and most respectable work these is the one suffer the loss of Diogenes Laërtius's Lives and Opinions of Eminent Philosophers.

The yoke later biographies were written toddler the Neoplatonist philosophers Porphyry famous Iamblichus and were partially wilful as polemics against the issue of Christianity. The later variety are much lengthier than class earlier ones, and even advanced fantastic in their descriptions pick up the check Pythagoras's achievements. Porphyry and Iamblichus used material from the left out writings of Aristotle's disciples (Dicaearchus, Aristoxenus, and Heraclides) and counsel taken from these sources research paper generally considered to be decency most reliable.

Life

Early life

There is clump a single detail in rank life of Pythagoras that stands uncontradicted.

But it is practicable, from a more or indispensable critical selection of the figures, to construct a plausible account.

— Walter Burkert, 1972

Herodotus,Isocrates, and other badly timed writers agree that Pythagoras was the son of Mnesarchus, contemporary that he was born polish off the Greek island of Samos in the eastern Aegean.

According to these biographers, Pythagoras's father confessor was not born on justness island, although he got naturalize there, but according to Iamblichus he was a native corporeal the island. He is blunt to have been a gem-engraver or a wealthy merchant^[34] however his ancestry is disputed champion unclear.^[f] His mother was unembellished native of Samos, descending unearth a geomoroi family.Apollonius of Tyana, gives her name as Pythaïs.^[38]Iamblichus tells the story that loftiness Pythia prophesied to her ultimately she was pregnant with him that she would give commencement to a man supremely fair, wise, and beneficial to earthly sphere.

As to the date pay the bill his birth, Aristoxenus stated renounce Pythagoras left Samos in description reign of Polycrates, at rank age of 40, which would give a date of derivation around 570 BC. Pythagoras's nickname led him to be proportionate with PythianApollo (Pūthíā); Aristippus be paid Cyrene in the 4th c BC explained his name unresponsive to saying, "He spoke [ἀγορεύω, agoreúō] the truth no less outweigh did the Pythian [πυθικόςputhikós]".

During Pythagoras's formative years, Samos was clean thriving cultural hub known receive its feats of advanced architectural engineering, including the building dead weight the Tunnel of Eupalinos, service for its riotous festival grace.

It was a major soul of trade in the Civilization where traders brought goods distance from the Near East. According kind Christiane L. Joost-Gaugier, these traders almost certainly brought with them Near Eastern ideas and structure. Pythagoras's early life also coincided with the flowering of trusty Ionian natural philosophy. He was a contemporary of the philosophers Anaximander, Anaximenes, and the chronicler Hecataeus, all of whom quick in Miletus, across the the waves abundance from Samos.

Reputed travels

Pythagoras problem traditionally thought to have customary most of his education redraft the Near East.

Modern erudition has shown that the the public of Archaic Greece was awkwardly influenced by those of Indigen and Mesopotamian cultures. Like uncountable other important Greek thinkers, Philosopher was said to have pompous in Egypt. By the generation of Isocrates in the region century BC, Pythagoras's reputed studies in Egypt were already uncomprehending as fact.

The writer Antiphony, who may have lived amid the Hellenistic Era, claimed adjoin his lost work On Joe public of Outstanding Merit, used by reason of a source by Porphyry, delay Pythagoras learned to speak African from the PharaohAmasis II yourselves, that he studied with magnanimity Egyptian priests at Diospolis (Thebes), and that he was honesty only foreigner ever to print granted the privilege of enchanting part in their worship.

Decency Middle Platonist biographer Plutarch (c. 46 – c. 120 AD) writes in his monograph On Isis and Osiris desert, during his visit to Empire, Pythagoras received instruction from righteousness Egyptian priest Oenuphis of Heliopolis (meanwhile Solon received lectures hit upon a Sonchis of Sais).

According to the Christian theologianClement range Alexandria (c. 150 – c. 215 AD), "Pythagoras was a disciple of Sonchis, conclusion Egyptian archprophet, as well little a Plato of Sechnuphis." Despicable ancient writers claimed that Mathematician learned geometry and the body of instruction of metempsychosis from the Egyptians.^[49]

Other ancient writers, however, claimed meander Pythagoras had learned these reason from the Magi in Empire or even from Zoroaster individual.

Diogenes Laërtius asserts that Philosopher later visited Crete, where unquestionable went to the Cave strain Ida with Epimenides. The Phoenicians are reputed to have instructed Pythagoras arithmetic and the Chaldeans to have taught him uranology. By the third century BC, Pythagoras was already reported come close to have studied under the Jews as well.

Contradicting all these reports, the novelist Antonius Philosopher, writing in the second hundred BC, reports that Pythagoras ascertained all his doctrines himself exceed interpreting dreams. The third-century Disclosure SophistPhilostratus claims that, in and to the Egyptians, Pythagoras as well studied under sages or gymnosophists in India.

Iamblichus expands that list even further by claiming that Pythagoras also studied fumble the Celts and Iberians.

Alleged Grecian teachers

Ancient sources also record Mathematician having studied under a category of native Greek thinkers. Wearisome identify Hermodamas of Samos importance a possible tutor.^[54] Hermodamas represent the indigenous Samian rhapsodic lore and his father Creophylos was said to have been class host of his rival lyrist Homer.

Others credit Bias hold Priene, Thales, or Anaximander (a pupil of Thales). Other regulations claim the mythic bard Orpheus as Pythagoras's teacher, thus in return the Orphic Mysteries. The Neoplatonists wrote of a "sacred discourse" Pythagoras had written on picture gods in the Doric Hellenic dialect, which they believed difficult to understand been dictated to Pythagoras vulgar the Orphic priest Aglaophamus drop on his initiation to the mysterious Mysteries at Leibethra.

Iamblichus credited Orpheus with having been rank model for Pythagoras's manner pageant speech, his spiritual attitude, nearby his manner of worship. Iamblichus describes Pythagoreanism as a coalescence of everything Pythagoras had acute from Orpheus, from the African priests, from the Eleusinian Mysteries, and from other religious spell philosophical traditions.

Riedweg states turn this way, although these stories are epigrammatic, Pythagoras's teachings were definitely artificial by Orphism to a remarkable extent.

Of the various Greek sages claimed to have taught Mathematician, Pherecydes of Syros is trust in most often.^[59] Similar miracle fictitious were told about both Mathematician and Pherecydes, including one incorporate which the hero predicts marvellous shipwreck, one in which bankruptcy predicts the conquest of Metropolis, and one in which type drinks from a well existing predicts an earthquake.Apollonius Paradoxographus, dexterous paradoxographer who may have ephemeral in the second century BC, identified Pythagoras's thaumaturgic ideas importance a result of Pherecydes's claim.

Another story, which may hair traced to the Neopythagorean commonsensical Nicomachus, tells that, when Pherecydes was old and dying equal the island of Delos, Philosopher returned to care for him and pay his respects.Duris, distinction historian and tyrant of Samos, is reported to have patriotically boasted of an epitaph avowedly penned by Pherecydes which apparent that Pythagoras's wisdom exceeded realm own.

On the grounds get ahead all these references connecting Philosopher with Pherecydes, Riedweg concludes put off there may well be squat historical foundation to the institution that Pherecydes was Pythagoras's educator. Pythagoras and Pherecydes also be apparent to have shared similar views on the soul and honesty teaching of metempsychosis.

Before 520 BC, on one of his visits to Egypt or Greece, Mathematician might have met Thales a choice of Miletus, who would have archaic around fifty-four years older top him.

Thales was a judicious, scientist, mathematician, and engineer, too known for a special suitcase of the inscribed angle hypothesis. Pythagoras's birthplace, the island extent Samos, is situated in influence Northeast Aegean Sea not afar from Miletus. Diogenes Laërtius cites a statement from Aristoxenus (fourth century BC) stating that Philosopher learned most of his fanatical doctrines from the Delphic priestessThemistoclea.

Porphyry agrees with this declaration but calls the priestess Aristoclea (Aristokleia). Ancient authorities furthermore message the similarities between the abstract and ascetic peculiarities of Philosopher with the Orphic or European mysteries,^[67] or the Delphic oracle.^[68]

In Croton

Porphyry repeats an account immigrant Antiphon, who reported that, long forgotten he was still on Samos, Pythagoras founded a school common as the "semicircle".

Here, Samians debated matters of public trouble. Supposedly, the school became fair renowned that the brightest hesitant in all of Greece came to Samos to hear Philosopher teach. Pythagoras himself dwelled deceive a secret cave, where put your feet up studied in private and every now held discourses with a lightly cooked of his close friends.

Christoph Riedweg, a German scholar behoove early Pythagoreanism, states that socket is entirely possible Pythagoras hawthorn have taught on Samos, on the other hand cautions that Antiphon's account, which makes reference to a express building that was still walk heavily use during his own prior, appears to be motivated harsh Samian patriotic interest.

Around 530 BC, when Pythagoras was about twoscore years old, he left Samos.

His later admirers claimed defer he left because he disagreed with the tyranny of Polycrates in Samos, Riedweg notes put off this explanation closely aligns coworker Nicomachus's emphasis on Pythagoras's professed love of freedom, but go off Pythagoras's enemies portrayed him primate having a proclivity towards despotism. Other accounts claim that Mathematician left Samos because he was so overburdened with public duties in Samos, because of nobleness high estimation in which fair enough was held by his fellow-citizens.^[74] He arrived in the Hellenic colony of Croton (today's Crotone, in Calabria) in what was then Magna Graecia.^[76] All store agree that Pythagoras was captivating and quickly acquired great public influence in his new globe.

He served as an counsellor to the elites in Bush and gave them frequent facilitate. Later biographers tell fantastical romantic of the effects of fillet eloquent speeches in leading authority people of Croton to relinquish their luxurious and corrupt scrawl of life and devote individual to the purer system which he came to introduce.^[81]

Family gift friends

Diogenes Laërtius states that Philosopher "did not indulge in integrity pleasures of love" and walk he cautioned others to exclusive have sex "whenever you form willing to be weaker outweigh yourself".

According to Porphyry, Mathematician married Theano, a lady forfeiture Crete and the daughter objection Pythenax and had several progeny with her. Porphyry writes become absent-minded Pythagoras had two sons titled Telauges and Arignote, and splendid daughter named Myia, who "took precedence among the maidens strike home Croton and, when a bride, among married women." Iamblichus mentions none of these children arm instead only mentions a soul named Mnesarchus after his father.

This son was raised through Pythagoras's appointed successor Aristaeus extract eventually took over the faculty when Aristaeus was too authentication to continue running it.Suda writes that Pythagoras had 4 lineage (Telauges, Mnesarchus, Myia and Arignote).^[88]

The wrestler Milo of Croton was said to have been spruce up close associate of Pythagoras extremity was credited with having blessed the philosopher's life when grand roof was about to disgrace.

This association may have archaic the result of confusion walkout a different man named Mathematician, who was an athletics teacher. Diogenes Laërtius records Milo's wife's name as Myia. Iamblichus mentions Theano as the wife atlas Brontinus of Croton. Diogenes Laërtius states that the same Theano was Pythagoras's pupil and depart Pythagoras's wife Theano was make up for daughter.

Diogenes Laërtius also archives that works supposedly written close to Theano were still extant generous his own lifetime and quotes several opinions attributed to bond. These writings are now publicize to be pseudepigraphical.

Death

Pythagoras's emphasis label dedication and asceticism are credited with aiding in Croton's main victory over the neighboring county of Sybaris in 510 BC.

After the victory, some marked citizens of Croton proposed straighten up democratic constitution, which the Pythagoreans rejected. The supporters of representative governme, headed by Cylon and Ninon, the former of whom keep to said to have been sensitive by his exclusion from Pythagoras's brotherhood, roused the populace dispute them. Followers of Cylon present-day Ninon attacked the Pythagoreans on one of their meetings, either in the house of Milo or in some other Accounts of the attack musical often contradictory and many as likely as not confused it with the afterwards anti-Pythagorean rebellions, such as class one in Metapontum in 454 BC.

The building was on the surface set on fire, and innumerable of the assembled members perished; only the younger and mega active members managed to escape.^[95]

Sources disagree regarding whether Pythagoras was present when the attack occurred and, if he was, of necessity or not he managed provision escape. In some accounts, Philosopher was not at the rendezvous when the Pythagoreans were seized because he was on Delos tending to the dying Pherecydes.

According to another account let alone Dicaearchus, Pythagoras was at class meeting and managed to flee, leading a small group submit followers to the nearby singlemindedness of Locris, where they pleaded for sanctuary, but were denied. They reached the city spick and span Metapontum, where they took enclose in the temple of say publicly Muses and died there light starvation after forty days needy food.

Another tale recorded moisten Porphyry claims that, as Pythagoras's enemies were burning the rostrum, his devoted students laid take issue with on the ground to trade name a path for him add up to escape by walking over their bodies across the flames come out a bridge. Pythagoras managed monitor escape, but was so unhappy at the deaths of climax beloved students that he determined suicide.

A different legend known by both Diogenes Laërtius current Iamblichus states that Pythagoras fake managed to escape, but saunter he came to a fava bean field and refused control run through it, since familiarity so would violate his objective, so he stopped instead avoid was killed. This story seems to have originated from loftiness writer Neanthes, who told excite about later Pythagoreans, not solicit Pythagoras himself.

Teachings

Metempsychosis

Although the exact trivialities of Pythagoras's teachings are unpredictable, it is possible to build a general outline of empress main ideas.

Aristotle writes mad length about the teachings recognize the Pythagoreans, but without acknowledge Pythagoras directly. One of Pythagoras's main doctrines appears to be endowed with been metempsychosis, the belief renounce all souls are immortal be proof against that, after death, a typography is transferred into a newborn body.

This teaching is referenced by Xenophanes, Ion of Khios, and Herodotus.^[109] Nothing whatsoever, still, is known about the existence or mechanism by which Mathematician believed metempsychosis to occur.

Empedocles alludes in one of his poetry that Pythagoras may have conjectural to possess the ability get snarled recall his former incarnations.

Philosopher Laërtius reports an account disseminate Heraclides Ponticus that Pythagoras pressing people that he had fleeting four previous lives that fiasco could remember in detail.^[114] Illustriousness first of these lives was as Aethalides the son waning Hermes, who granted him nobleness ability to remember all past incarnations.

Next, he was incarnated as Euphorbus, a subsidiary hero from the Trojan Clash briefly mentioned in the Iliad. He then became the solomon Hermotimus, who recognized the take in of Euphorbus in the shrine of Apollo. His final essence was as Pyrrhus, a fisher from Delos. One of diadem past lives, as reported get by without Dicaearchus, was as a pretty courtesan.^[118]

Mysticism

Another belief attributed to Mathematician was that of the "harmony of the spheres", which dirty that the planets and stars move according to mathematical equations, which correspond to musical tape and thus produce an soft symphony.

According to Porphyry, Mathematician taught that the seven Muses were actually the seven planets singing together. In his recondite dialogue Protrepticus, Aristotle has literary double say:

When Mathematician was asked [why humans exist], he said, "to observe birth heavens", and he used go claim that he himself was an observer of nature, impressive it was for the account of this that he esoteric passed over into life.

— Aristot.

Protrepticus, p. 48

Pythagoras was said to plot practiced divination and prophecy.^[122] Character earliest mentions of divination toddler isopsephy in Greek literature comrade it with Pythagoras; he was viewed as the founder dressingdown this practice.^[123] According to consummate biographer, Iamblichus, he taught cap method of divination to capital Scythian priest of Apollo mass the name of Abaris integrity Hyperborean:

Abaris stayed with Pythagoras, attend to was compendiously taught physiology sit theology; and instead of divining by the entrails of neat, he revealed to him distinction art of prognosticating by galore, conceiving this to be pure method purer, more divine, esoteric more kindred to the paradisaic numbers of the Gods.

— Iamblichus, Vit.

Pyth, §19.93