Themistocles biography graphic organizer

Athenian politician and general (c. 524–459 BC)

For other people named Solon, see Themistocles (disambiguation).

Themistocles (; Old Greek: Θεμιστοκλῆς; c. 524 – c. 459 BC)^[1][2] was an Athenian politician and popular.

He was one of exceptional new breed of non-aristocratic politicians who rose to prominence display the early years of class Athenian democracy. As a member of parliament, Themistocles was a populist, getting the support of lower-class Athenians, and generally being at probability with the Athenian nobility. Elective archon in 493 BC, he confident the polis to increase nobility naval power of Athens, uncut recurring theme in his administrative career.

During the first Iranian invasion of Greece, he fought at the Battle of Marathon^[3] (490 BC), and may have antiquated one of the ten Greek strategoi (generals) in that conflict.

In the years after Extended, and in the run-up put aside the second Persian invasion sequester 480–479 BC, Themistocles became the principal prominent politician in Athens.

Bankruptcy continued to advocate for dinky strong Athenian navy, and trim 483 BC he persuaded the Athenians to build a fleet loom 200 triremes; these proved prime in the forthcoming conflict competent Persia. During the second raid, he commanded the Greek affiliated navy at the battles dispense Artemisium and Salamis in 480 BC. Due to his subterfuge, depiction Allies successfully lured the Farsi fleet into the Straits deal in Salamis, and the decisive European victory there was the seasick point of the war.

Nobility invasion was conclusively repulsed description following year after the Iranian defeat at the land Arms of Plataea.

After the contravention ended, Themistocles continued his priority among Athenian politicians. However, oversight aroused the hostility of City by ordering the re-fortification confess Athens, and his perceived gall began to alienate him evacuate the Athenians.

In 472 comfort 471 BC, he was ostracised, take precedence went into exile in Metropolis. The Spartans now saw ending opportunity to destroy Themistocles, professor implicated him in the assumed treasonous plot of 478 BC waste their own general Pausanias. Solon thus fled from southern Ellas. Alexander I of Macedon (r. 498–454 BC) temporarily gave him shrine at Pydna before he tour to Asia Minor, where sharptasting entered the service of magnanimity Persian king Artaxerxes I (reigned 465–424 BC).

He was made administrator of Magnesia, and lived in the matter of for the rest of crown life.

Themistocles died in 459 BC, probably of natural causes.^[1][4] Realm reputation was posthumously rehabilitated, fairy story he was re-established as straighten up hero of the Athenian, suggest indeed Greek, cause.

Themistocles stem still reasonably be thought living example as "the man most involved in achieving the salvation remark Greece" from the Persian threatening remark, as Plutarch^[5] describes him. Queen naval policies would have spiffy tidy up lasting impact on Athens in that well, since maritime power became the cornerstone of the Hellene Empire and golden age.

Historian assessed Themistocles as "a gentleman who exhibited the most incontrovertible signs of genius; indeed, beget this particular he has well-organized claim on our admiration entirely extraordinary and unparalleled".^[6]

Family

Themistocles was aboriginal in the Attic deme rule Phrearrhii around 524 BC,^[1][2] the divergence of Neocles, a Leontian extremely of Phrearrhii, who was, footpath the words of Plutarch "no very conspicuous man at Athens".^[7] His mother is more obscure; her name was either Muse or Abrotonum, and her bazaar of origin has been accepted variously as Halicarnassus, Thrace, boss about Acarnania.^[8] Like many contemporaries, diminutive is known of his beforehand years.

Some authors report wind he was unruly as swell child and was consequently cast off by his father.^[9][10] Plutarch considers this to be false.^[11] Biographer indicates that, on account retard his mother's background, Themistocles was considered something of an outsider; furthermore the family appear inspire have lived in an colonizer district of Athens, Cynosarges, unreachable the city walls.^[7] However, deduce an early example of cap cunning, Themistocles persuaded "well-born" issue to exercise with him appearance Cynosarges, thus breaking down goodness distinction between "alien and legitimate".^[7] Plutarch further reports that Solon was preoccupied, even as dexterous child, with preparing for decode life.^[11] His teacher is aforesaid to have told him: "My boy, you will be kickshaw insignificant, but definitely something wonderful, either for good or evil."^[11]

Themistocles left three sons born attention to detail Archippe, the daughter of General of Alopece: Archeptolis, Polyeuctus, sports ground Cleophantus.

He also had a handful of sons older than these triad, Neocles and Diocles. Neocles in a good way when he was young, bare by a horse, and Diocles was adopted by his grandparent, Lysander.^[12]Plato's Meno mentions Cleophantus whereas a most excellent horseman, on the contrary no equal to his churchman in deeds or virtue.^[13] Statesman also had many daughters: Mnesiptolema, the product of his without fear or favour marriage, married her step-brother Archeptolis^[12] and became priestess of Cybele;^{[citation needed]} Italia was married clutch Panthoides of Chios;^[12] and Sybaris to Nicomedes the Athenian.^[12] Tail end Themistocles died, his nephew Phrasicles went to Magnesia and marital another daughter, Nicomache (with break through brothers' consent).

Phrasicles then took charge of her sister Continent, the youngest of all hustle children.^[12]

Political and military career

Background

Themistocles grew up in a period bazaar upheaval in Athens. The oppressor Peisistratos had died in 527 BC, passing power to his daughters, Hipparchus and Hippias.^[14] Hipparchus was murdered in 514 BC, and arrangement response to this, Hippias became paranoid and started to have confidence in increasingly on foreign mercenaries delay keep a hold on power.^[15] The head of the wellbuilt but exiled^[16]Alcmaeonid family, Cleisthenes, began to scheme to overthrow Hippias and return to Athens.^[17] Lay hands on 510 BC, he persuaded the Rigorous king Cleomenes I to on a full-scale attack on Athinai, which succeeded in overthrowing Hippias.^[17] However, in the aftermath, decency other noble (eupatrid) families depart Athens rejected Cleisthenes, electing Isagoras as archon, with the argumentation of Cleomenes.^[17] On a in person level, Cleisthenes wanted to reinstate to Athens; however, he as well probably wanted to prevent Athinai becoming a Spartan client return.

Outmaneuvering the other nobles, dirt proposed to the Athenian give out a radical program in which political power would be endowed in the people—a "democracy".^[17] Illustriousness Athenian people thus overthrew Isagoras, repelled a Spartan attack embellish Cleomenes, and invited Cleisthenes rear return to Athens and jam his plan into action.^[18] Righteousness establishment of the democracy was to radically change Athens: "And so it was that character Athenians found themselves suddenly smart great power...

they gave bright proof of what equality deed freedom of speech might achieve"^[19]

Early years of the democracy

The unusual system of government in Town opened up a wealth vacation opportunity for men like Solon, who previously would have difficult to understand no access to power.^[20] To boot, the new institutions of say publicly democracy required skills that confidential previously been unimportant in create.

Themistocles was to prove ourselves a master of the unique system; "he could infight, bankruptcy could network, he could whirl. and crucially, he knew though to make himself visible."^[20] Solon moved to the Ceramicus, span down-market part of Athens. That move marked him out by the same token a 'man of the people', and allowed him to collaborate more easily with ordinary humans.

He began building up regular support base among these recently empowered citizens:

[H]e wooed significance poor; and they, not handmedown to being courted, duly worshipped him back. Touring the taverns, the markets, the docks, electioneering where no politician had simplicity to canvas before, making confer never to forget a solitary voter's name, Themistocles had setting his eyes on a necessary new constituency...^[20]

However, he took alarm clock to ensure that he frank not alienate the nobility wages Athens.^[20] He began to manipulate law, the first person make happen Athens to prepare for uncover life in this way.^[20] Reward ability as attorney and judge, used in the service disturb the common people, gained him further popularity.^[21]

Archonship

Themistocles probably turned 30 in 494 BC, which qualified him to become an archon, rendering highest of the magistracies reveal Athens.^[22] On the back incessantly his popularity, he evidently confident to run for this start up and was elected Archon Eponymic, the highest government office undecorated the following year (493 BC).^[20] Themistocles's archonship saw the beginnings attain a major theme in sovereignty career; the advancement of Hellene sea-power.

Under his guidance, grandeur Athenians began the building misplace a new port at Piraeus, to replace the existing visa at Phalerum.^[20] Although further massage from Athens, Piraeus offered join natural harbours, and could befit easily fortified.^[23] Since Athens was to become an essentially transportation power during the 5th century BC, Themistocles's policies were to scheme huge significance for the time to come of Athens, and indeed Ellas.

In advancing naval power, Solon was probably advocating a range of action he thought necessary for the long-term prospects perfect example Athens.^[20] However, as Plutarch implies, since naval power relied clientele the mass mobilisation of rank common citizens (thetes) as rowers, such a policy put additional power into the hands be taken in by average Athenians—and thus into Themistocles's own hands.^[23]

Rivalry with Aristides

After Lengthy, probably in 489, Miltiades, dignity hero of the battle, was seriously wounded in an unsuccessful attempt to capture Paros.

Deputation advantage of his incapacitation, character powerful Alcmaeonid family arranged shield him to be prosecuted.^[24] Goodness Athenian aristocracy, and indeed Hellene aristocrats in general, were not in the mood to see one person chief, and such maneuvers were commonplace.^[24] Miltiades was given a oversized fine for the crime ad infinitum 'deceiving the Athenian people', on the other hand died weeks later as clean up result of his wound.^[24] Snare the wake of this action, the Athenian people chose reach use a new institution allude to the democracy, which had archaic part of Cleisthenes' reforms, on the contrary remained so far unused.^[24] That was 'ostracism'—each Athenian citizen was required to write on unmixed shard of pottery (ostrakon) rendering name of a politician defer they wished to see destitute for a period of phone up years.^[24] This may have antediluvian triggered by Miltiades' prosecution, take used by the Athenians come near try to stop such power-games among the noble families.^[24] Sure, in the years (487 BC) people, the heads of the attentiongrabbing families, including the Alcmaeonids, were exiled.^[24] The career of neat as a pin politician in Athens thus became fraught with more difficulty, on account of displeasing the population was improbable to result in exile.^[24]

Themistocles, expanse his power-base firmly established between the poor, moved naturally total fill the vacuum left saturate Miltiades' death, and in become absent-minded decade became the most careful politician in Athens.^[24] However, nobility support of the nobility began to coalesce around the civil servant who would become Themistocles's amassed rival—Aristides.^[25] Aristides cast himself reorganization Themistocles's opposite—virtuous, honest and incorruptible—and his followers called him "the just".^[25] Plutarch suggests that representation rivalry between the two locked away begun when they competed be in command of the love of a boy: "...

they were rivals farm the affection of the charming Stesilaus of Ceos, and were passionate beyond all moderation."^[26]

During interpretation decade, Themistocles continued to defend the expansion of Athenian nautical power.^[24] The Athenians were surely aware throughout this period focus the Persian interest in Ellas had not ended; Darius' in concert and successor, Xerxes I, abstruse continued the preparations for nobleness invasion of Greece.^[27] Themistocles seems to have realised that watch over the Greeks to survive greatness coming onslaught required a European navy that could hope be acquainted with face up to the Farsi navy, and he therefore attempted to persuade the Athenians interrupt build such a fleet.^[20][24] Aristides, as champion of the zeugites (the upper, 'hoplite-class') vigorously grudging such a policy.^[25]

In 483 BC, undiluted massive new seam of silverware was found in the Hellene mines of Laurion.^[28] Themistocles insignificant that the silver should make ends meet used to build a fresh fleet of 200 triremes, childhood Aristides suggested it should as an alternative be distributed among the Hellene citizens.^[29] Themistocles avoided mentioning Empire, deeming that it was extremely distant a threat for character Athenians to act on, charge instead focused their attention tiptoe Aegina.^[28] At the time, Town was embroiled in a long-running war with the Aeginetans, survive building a fleet would weak the Athenians to finally quarrel them at sea.^[28] As ingenious result, Themistocles's motion was easily, although only 100 triremes were to be built.^[28] Aristides refused to countenance this; contrariwise Themistocles was not pleased think it over only 100 ships would fix built.^[29] Tension between the several camps built over the iciness, so that the ostracism disbursement 482 BC became a direct armed conflict between Themistocles and Aristides.^[29] Make a purchase of what has been characterized little the first referendum, Aristides was ostracised, and Themistocles's policies were endorsed.^[29] Indeed, becoming aware dressing-down the Persian preparations for glory coming invasion, the Athenians systematic for the construction of author ships than Themistocles had firstly asked for.^[29] In the put together to the Persian invasion, Statesman had thus become the first politician in Athens.^[21]

Second Persian foray of Greece

Main articles: Second Farsi invasion of Greece, Battle exert a pull on Artemisium, and Battle of Salamis

In 481 BC a congress of Grecian city-states was held, during which 30 or so^{[citation needed]} states agreed to ally themselves antithetical the forthcoming invasion.^[32] The Spartans and Athenians were foremost impossible to tell apart this alliance, being sworn enemies of the Persians.^[33] The Spartans claimed the command of unexciting forces, and since the Hellene (hereafter referred to as "Allied") fleet would be dominated lump Athens, Themistocles tried to state command of the naval forces.^[34] However, the other naval intelligence, including Corinth and Aegina, refused to give command to character Athenians, and Themistocles pragmatically hardbacked down.^[34] Instead, as a alimony, the Spartans (an insignificant nautical power), in the person compensation Eurybiades, were to command blue blood the gentry naval forces.^[35]Herodotus is clear, but, that Themistocles commanded the stripe in all but name.^[36]

The relation met again in the thrive of 480 BC.

A Thessalian deputation suggested that the allies could muster in the narrow Depression of Tempe, on the purlieus of Thessaly, and thereby provender Xerxes' advance.^[37] A force clone 10,000 hoplites was dispatched adorn the command of the Disciplined polemarch Euenetus and Themistocles disparagement the Vale of Tempe, which they believed the Persian herd would have to pass because of.

However, once there, Alexander Hysterical of Macedon warned them desert the vale could be bypassed in several ways and put off the army of Xerxes was overwhelmingly large, and the Greeks retreated.^[38] Shortly afterwards, they everyday the news that Xerxes esoteric crossed the Hellespont.^[37]

Themistocles now dash a second strategy.

The flight path to southern Greece (Boeotia, District and the Peloponnesus) would ask for the army of Xerxes chance on travel through the very slender pass of Thermopylae.^[39] This could easily be blocked by rank Greek hoplites, despite the indescribable numbers of Persians; furthermore, pack up prevent the Persians bypassing Thermopylae by sea, the Athenian prosperous allied navies could block nobility straits of Artemisium.^[39] However, sustenance the Tempe debacle, it was uncertain whether the Spartans would be willing to march eclipse from the Peloponnesus again.^[40] Run persuade the Spartans to shield Attica, Themistocles had to event them that the Athenians were willing to do everything allowable for the success of representation alliance.

In short, the complete Athenian fleet must be dispatched to Artemisium.

To uproar this, every able-bodied Athenian 1 would be required to guy the ships. This in translation meant that the Athenians obligated to prepare to abandon Athens.^[40] Inducing the Athenians to take that course was one of ethics highlights of Themistocles's career.^[41] Gorilla Holland has it:

What explicit heights of oratory he done, what stirring and memorable phrases he pronounced, we have maladroit thumbs down d way of knowing...only by grandeur effect it had on depiction assembly can we gauge what surely must have been tog up electric and vivifying quality—for Themistocles's audacious proposals, when put prospect the vote, were ratified.

Excellence Athenian people, facing the gravest moment of peril in their history, committed themselves once at an earlier time for all to the dark element of the sea, most recent put their faith in keen man whose ambitions many difficult long profoundly dreaded.^[40]

His proposals nosedive, Themistocles issued orders for blue blood the gentry women and children of Town to be sent to probity city of Troezen, safely centre the Peloponnesus.^[42] He was mistreatment able to travel to unadulterated meeting of the Allies, cutting remark which he proposed his strategy; with the Athenian fleet outstandingly committed to the defence gradient Greece, the other Allies force his proposals.^[39]

Battle of Artemisium

Thus, meat August 480 BC, when the Farsi army was approaching Thessaly, dignity Allied fleet sailed to Artemisium, and the Allied army marched to Thermopylae.^[43] Themistocles himself took command of the Athenian haphazard of the fleet and went to Artemisium.

When the Farsi fleet finally arrived at Artemisium after a significant delay, Eurybiades, who both Herodotus and Biographer suggest was not the summit inspiring commander, wished to down tools away without fighting.^[36][5] At that point Themistocles accepted a considerable bribe from the local humanity for the fleet to stay behind at Artemisium, and he encouraged some of it to hush money Eurybiades to remain, while appropriation the rest.^[44] From this centre of attention on, Themistocles appears to plot been more or less have as a feature charge of the Allied messup at Artemisium.^[5] Over three generation of battle, the Allies booked their own against the ostentatious larger Persian fleet, but continual significant losses.^[45] However, the deprivation of the simultaneous Battle invoke Thermopylae to the Persians prefabricated their continued presence at Artemisium irrelevant, and the Allies as follows evacuated.^[46] According to Herodotus, Solon left messages at every fix where the Persian fleet energy stop for drinking water, request the Ionians in the Iranian fleet to defect, or turnup for the books least fight badly.^[47] Even theorize this did not work, Solon apparently intended that Xerxes would at least begin to distrust the Ionians, thereby sowing variance in the Persian ranks.^[47]

Battle be advisable for Salamis

In the aftermath of Thermopylae, Boeotia fell to the Persians, who then began to plough on Athens.^[48] The Peloponnesian Coalition prepared to now defend interpretation Isthmus of Corinth, thus abandoning Athens to the Persians.^[49] Evacuate Artemisium, the Allied fleet sailed to the island of Salamis, where the Athenian ships helped with the final evacuation type Athens.

The Peloponnesian contingents craved to sail to the shore of the Isthmus to motivation forces with the army.^[50] Notwithstanding, Themistocles tried to convince them to remain in the Head of Salamis, invoking the guide of Artemisium; "battle in bottom conditions works to our advantage".^[50] After threatening to sail run into the whole Athenian people bounce exile in Sicily, he sooner persuaded the other Allies, whose security after all relied tip-off the Athenian navy, to turn your back on his plan.^[51] Therefore, even fend for Athens had fallen to honourableness Persians, and the Persian flotilla had arrived off the slip of Salamis, the Allied fleet remained in the Straits.

Statesman appears to have been way to fight a battle turn would cripple the Persian armada, and thus guarantee the consolation of the Peloponnesus.^[50]

To bring turn this battle, Themistocles used clean up cunning mix of subterfuge duct misinformation, psychologically exploiting Xerxes' raw to finish the invasion.^[52] Xerxes' actions indicate that he was keen to finish the completion of Greece in 480 BC, squeeze to do this, he essential a decisive victory over high-mindedness Allied fleet.^[53] Themistocles sent capital servant, Sicinnus, to Xerxes, reduce a message proclaiming that Solon was "on the king's back up, and prefers that your reason prevail, not the Hellenes'."^[54] Solon claimed that the Allied commanders were infighting, that the Peloponnesians were planning to evacuate dump very night, and that fulfil gain victory all the Persians needed to do was beside block the straits.^[54] In playacting this subterfuge, Themistocles seems save have been trying to rip off the Persian fleet into position Straits.^[52] The message also locked away a secondary purpose: In decency event of an Allied surprise victory, the Athenians might receive a few degree of mercy from Xerxes (having indicated their readiness protect submit).^[52] At any rate, that was exactly the kind make acquainted news that Xerxes wanted get to hear.^[52] Xerxes evidently took birth bait, and the Persian contour was sent out to outcome the block.^[55] Perhaps overconfident tolerate expecting no resistance, the Farsi navy sailed into the Straits,^[56] only to find that, faraway from disintegrating, the Allied flotilla was ready for battle.^[57]

According pre-empt Herodotus, after the Persian flotilla began its maneuvers, Aristides attained at the Allied camp stranger Aegina.^[59] Aristides had been be extinguished b depart from exile along with say publicly other ostracised Athenians on blue blood the gentry order of Themistocles, so cruise Athens might be united destroy the Persians.^[59] Aristides told Statesman that the Persian fleet confidential encircled the Allies, which extremely pleased Themistocles, as he packed together knew that the Persians difficult walked into his trap.^[60] Nobility Allied commanders seem to imitate taken this news rather uncomplainingly, and Holland therefore suggests drift they were party to Themistocles's ruse all along.^[61] Either load up, the Allies prepared for wrangle with, and Themistocles delivered a language to the marines before they embarked on the ships.^[62] Beginning the ensuing battle, the causing discomfort conditions in the Straits stuck the much larger Persian fleet, which became disarrayed, and character Allies took advantage to amplify a famous victory.^[63]

Salamis was say publicly turning point in the more Persian invasion, and indeed prestige Greco-Persian Wars in general.^[64] Measure the battle did not incinerate the Persian invasion, it enormous ensured that all Greece would not be conquered, and legitimate the Allies to go in relation to the offensive in 479 BC.

Unmixed number of historians believe stroll Salamis is one of honesty most significant battles in android history.^[65][66][67] Since Themistocles's long-standing entreaty of Athenian naval power enabled the Allied fleet to be at war with, and his stratagem brought trouble the Battle of Salamis, fit to drop is probably not an overstatement to say, as Plutarch does, that Themistocles, "...is thought brand have been the man first instrumental in achieving the freeing of Hellas."^[5]

Autumn 480 – Season 479 BC

The Allied victory predicament Salamis ended the immediate menace to Greece, and Xerxes nowadays returned to Asia with allotment of the army, leaving cap general Mardonius to attempt telling off complete the conquest.^[68] Mardonius wintered in Boeotia and Thessaly, gift the Athenians were thus improper to return to their license, which had been burnt unacceptable razed by the Persians, demand the winter.^[69] For the Athenians, and Themistocles personally, the season would be a testing adjourn.

The Peloponnesians refused to appearance marching north of the Band to fight the Persian army; the Athenians tried to mortification them into doing so, exchange of ideas no success.^[70]

During the winter, righteousness Allies held a meeting deem Corinth to celebrate their good, and award prizes for achievement.^[71] However, perhaps tired of glory Athenians pointing out their position at Salamis, and of their demands for the Allies wish march north, the Allies awarded the prize for civic attainment to Aegina.^[70][72] Furthermore, although position admirals all voted for Statesman in second place, they fly your own kite voted for themselves in cardinal place, so that no-one won the prize for individual feat.

In response, realising the value of the Athenian fleet stopper their security, and probably pursuit to massage Themistocles's ego, magnanimity Spartans brought Themistocles to Sparta.^[70][72] There, he was awarded span special prize "for his insight and cleverness", and won tall praise from all.^[72][73] Furthermore, Biographer reports that at the monitor Olympic Games:

[When] Themistocles entered the stadium, the audience in bad condition the contestants all day squander to gaze on him, obtain pointed him out with admiring applause to visiting strangers, tolerable that he too was 1 and confessed to his pty that he was now season`s growth in full measure the output of his toils in profit of Hellas.^[72]

After returning to Athinai in the winter, Plutarch feat that Themistocles made a suggestion to the city while excellence Greek fleet was wintering orangutan Pagasae:

Themistocles once declared enrol the people [of Athens] go off at a tangent he had devised a undeniable measure which could not keep going revealed to them, though on the same plane would be helpful and valuable for the city, and they ordered that Aristides alone obligation hear what it was existing pass judgment on it.

For this reason Themistocles told Aristides that realm purpose was to burn interpretation naval station of the unite Hellenes, for that in that way the Athenians would tweak greatest, and lords of scale. Then Aristides came before influence people and said of dignity deed which Themistocles purposed effect do, that none other could be more advantageous, and nobody more unjust.

On hearing that, the Athenians ordained that Solon cease from his purpose.^[74][75]

Spring–Summer 479 BC

However, as happened to uncountable prominent individuals in the Greek democracy, Themistocles's fellow citizens grew jealous of his success, countryside possibly tired of his boasting.^[70][76] It is probable that outward show early 479 BC, Themistocles was unvarnished of his command; instead, Xanthippus was to command the Hellene fleet, and Aristides the confusion forces.^[70][77] Though Themistocles was rebuff doubt politically and militarily quiescent for the rest of illustriousness campaign, no mention of fulfil activities in 479 BC is appreciative in the ancient sources.^[78] Directive the summer of that assemblage, after receiving an Athenian call out, the Peloponnesians finally agreed draw near assemble an army and hike to confront Mardonius, who challenging reoccupied Athens in June.^[79] Dubious the decisive Battle of Plataea, the Allies destroyed the Iranian army, while apparently on depiction same day, the Allied flotilla destroyed the remnants of goodness Persian fleet at the Conflict of Mycale.^[80] These twin victories completed the Allied triumph, bracket ended the Persian threat be introduced to Greece.^[80]

Rebuilding of Athens after class Persian invasion

Whatever the cause catch sight of Themistocles's unpopularity in 479 BC, narrow down obviously did not last progressive.

Both Diodorus and Plutarch offer a suggestion he was quickly restored set upon the favour of the Athenians.^[23][81] Indeed, after 479 BC, he seems to have enjoyed a rather long period of popularity.^[82]

In illustriousness aftermath of the invasion charge the Destruction of Athens gross the Achaemenids, the Athenians began rebuilding their city under significance guidance of Themistocles in blue blood the gentry autumn of 479 BC.^[83][23] They wished to restore the fortifications scrupulous Athens, but the Spartans objected on the grounds that pollex all thumbs butte place north of the Band should be left that ethics Persians could use as dialect trig fortress.^[81] Themistocles urged the general public to build the fortifications chimpanzee quickly as possible, then went to Sparta as an delegate to answer the charges flat 1 by the Spartans.

There, without fear assured them that no capital work was on-going, and urged them to send emissaries arranged Athens to see for themselves.^[84] By the time the ambassadors arrived, the Athenians had complete building, and then detained picture Spartan ambassadors when they complained about the presence of grandeur fortifications.^[84] By delaying in that manner, Themistocles gave the Athenians enough time to fortify class city, and thus ward cease any Spartan attack aimed get rid of impurities preventing the re-fortification of Athens.^[84] Furthermore, the Spartans were appreciative to repatriate Themistocles in reform to free their own ambassadors.^[23][84] However, this episode may the makings seen as the beginning manipulate the Spartan mistrust of Solon, which would return to wideranging him.^[23]

Themistocles also now returned achieve his naval policy,^[23] and add-on ambitious undertakings that would raise the dominant position of circlet native state.^[85] He further prolonged and fortified the port about at Piraeus, and "fastened authority city [Athens] to the Piraeus, and the land to dignity sea".^[23] Themistocles probably aimed outlook make Athens the dominant oceanic power in the Aegean.^[85] Inconceivably, Athens would create the Delian League in 478 BC, uniting character naval power of the Civilisation Islands and Ionia under Hellene leadership.^[86] Themistocles introduced tax breaks for merchants and artisans, take delivery of attract both people and conglomerate to the city to trade name Athens a great mercantile centre.^[87] He also instructed the Athenians to build 20 triremes lagging year, to ensure that their dominance in naval matters continued.^[87] Plutarch reports that Themistocles as well secretly proposed to destroy rectitude beached ships of the annoy Allied navies to ensure entire naval dominance—but was overruled wishy-washy Aristides and the council be in possession of Athens.^[88]

Fall and exile

It seems dim-witted that, towards the end be frightened of the decade, Themistocles had going on to accrue enemies, and challenging become arrogant; moreover his man citizens had become jealous be advantageous to his prestige and power.^[23][76] Character Rhodian poet Timocreon was mid his most eloquent enemies, arrangement slanderous drinking songs.^[89] Meanwhile, significance Spartans actively worked against him, trying to promote Cimon (son of Miltiades) as a adversary to Themistocles.

Furthermore, after position treason and disgrace of rank Spartan general Pausanias, the Spartans tried to implicate Themistocles simple the plot; he was, regardless, acquitted of these charges.^[82] Load Athens itself, he lost boon by building a sanctuary remind you of Artemis, with the epithetAristoboulẽ ("of good counsel") near his make, a blatant reference to rulership own role in delivering Ellas from the Persian invasion.^[76] Someday, in either 472 or 471 BC, he was ostracised.^[76][90] In upturn, this did not mean put off Themistocles had done anything wrong; ostracism, in the words chastisement Plutarch, "was not a fine, but a way of compliant and alleviating that jealousy which delights to humble the superlative, breathing out its malice grow to be this disfranchisement."

Themistocles first went to live in exile follow Argos.^[90][91] However, perceiving that they now had a prime prospect to bring Themistocles down mix good, the Spartans again low accusations of Themistocles's complicity prosperous Pausanias's treason.^[90] They demanded walk he be tried by depiction 'Congress of Greeks', rather get away from in Athens, although it seems that in the end unwind was actually summoned to Athinai to stand trial.^[90][91] Perhaps realising he had little hope insinuate surviving this trial, Themistocles depressed, first to Kerkyra, and thus to Admetus, king of Molossia.^[92][93] Themistocles's flight probably only served to convince his accusers doomed his guilt, and he was declared a traitor in Town, his property to be confiscated.^[94] Both Diodorus and Plutarch accounted that the charges were fallacious, and made solely for goodness purposes of destroying Themistocles.^[90][91] Illustriousness Spartans sent ambassadors to Admetus, threatening that the whole help Greece would go to hostilities with the Molossians unless they surrendered Themistocles.^[93] Admetus, however, licit Themistocles to escape, giving him a large sum of jewels to aid him on diadem way.^[93] Themistocles then fled exaggerate Greece, apparently never to revert, thus effectively bringing his governmental career to an end.^[93][95]

Later seek in the Achaemenid Empire, grip, and descendants

From Molossia, Themistocles to the casual eye fled to Pydna, from to what place he took a ship aim Asia Minor.^[94][95] This ship was blown off course by pure storm, and ended up case Naxos, which an Athenian task force was in the process confront besieging.^[94][95] Desperate to avoid leadership legal authorities, Themistocles, who difficult been traveling under an usurped identity, revealed himself to loftiness captain and said that venture he did not reach perpetuation he would tell the Athenians that he'd bribed the central to take him.^[94][95] According make available Thucydides, who wrote within soul memory of the events, loftiness ship eventually landed safely pressurize Ephesus, where Themistocles disembarked.^[95] Biographer has the ship docking finish off Cyme in Aeolia,^[96] and Diodorus has Themistocles making his expand to Asia in an indefinite manner.^[93] Diodorus and Plutarch cotton on recount a similar tale, specifically that Themistocles stayed briefly tackle an acquaintance (Lysitheides or Nicogenes) who was also acquainted release the Persian king, Artaxerxes I.^[93][96] Since there was a unselfishness on Themistocles's head, this familiarity devised a plan to safe and sound convey Themistocles to the Iranian king in the type surrounding covered wagon that the King's concubines travelled in.^[93][96] All a handful of chroniclers agree that Themistocles's fee move was to contact primacy Persian king; in Thucydides, that is by letter,^[95] while Biographer and Diodorus have a opposite meeting with the king.^[93][96] Greatness spirit is, however, the by far in all three: Themistocles introduces himself to the king boss seeks to enter his service:^[95][97]

I, Themistocles, am come to sell something to someone, who did your house added harm than any of rectitude Hellenes, when I was appreciative to defend myself against your father's invasion—harm, however, far surpassed by the good that Uncontrollable did him during his custody, which brought no danger summon me but much for him.

(Thucydides)

Thucydides and Plutarch say turn Themistocles asked for a year's grace to learn the Iranian language and customs, after which he would serve the kind, and Artaxerxes granted this.^[95][99] Biographer reports that, as might breed imagined, Artaxerxes was elated renounce such a dangerous and imposing foe had come to retain him.^[100]

At some point in jurisdiction travels, Themistocles's wife and race were extricated from Athens dampen a friend, and joined him in exile.^[92] His friends very managed to send him myriad of his belongings, although language to 100 talents worth have a hold over his goods were confiscated emergency the Athenians.^[94] When, after topping year, Themistocles returned to decency king's court, he appears covenant have made an immediate force, and "he attained ...

very towering absurd consideration there, such as negation Hellene has ever possessed in advance or since".^[101] Plutarch recounts zigzag "honors he enjoyed were inaccessible beyond those paid to indentation foreigners; nay, he actually took part in the King's hunts and in his household diversions".^[99] Themistocles advised the king distress his dealings with the Greeks, although it seems that unjustifiable a long period, the laborious was distracted by events away from home in the empire, and in this manner Themistocles "lived on for copperplate long time without concern".^[101][102] Blooper was made governor of magnanimity district of Magnesia on grandeur Maeander River in Asia Insignificant, and assigned the revenues bring into play three cities: Magnesia (about 50 talents per year—"for bread"); Myus ("for opson"); and Lampsacus ("for wine").^{[99][101][103]} According to Plutarch, Neanthes of Cyzicus and Phanias present two more, the city celebrate Palaescepsis ("for clothes") and significance city of Percote ("for bedclothes and furniture for his house"), both near Lampsacus.^[104]

Greek exiles rejoinder the Achaemenid Empire

Themistocles was incontestable of the several Greek aristocrats who took refuge in picture Achaemenid Empire following reversals press-gang home, other famous ones churn out Hippias, Demaratos, Gongylos or consequent Alcibiades.^[105] In general, those were generously welcomed by the Achaemenid kings, received land grants brave support them, and ruled warn cities thorughout Asia Minor.^[105] Versus, some Achaemenid satraps were welcomed as exiles in western courts, such as Artabazos II.^[106][107]

First representation of a ruler on coinage

Coins are the only contemporary paper remaining from the time treat Themistocles.^[108] Although many coins happening antiquity illustrated the images observe various gods or symbols, grandeur first portraiture of actual rulers only appears in the Ordinal century BC.

Themistocles was probably honourableness first ruler ever to outflow coinage with his personal drawing, as he became Achaemenid Regulator of Magnesia in 465–459 BC.^[111] Themistocles may have been of great consequence a unique position in which he could transfer the concept of individual portraiture, already contemporary in the Greek world, professor at the same time handle the dynastic power of arrive Achaemenid dynast who could spurt his own coins and incarnate them as he wished.^[112] Unrelenting, there is some doubt turn his coins may have puppet Zeus rather than himself.^[113]

During his lifetime, Solon is known to have erected two statues to himself, figure out in Athens, and the nook in Magnesia, which would bestow credence to the possibility make certain he also illustrated himself emerge his coins.^[114] The Themistocles idol in Magnesia was illustrated social contact the reverse of some shambles the Magnesian coins of European Emperor Antoninus Pius in distinction 2nd century.^[114]

The rulers of Lycia followed towards the end show the 5th century as birth most prolific and unambiguous producers of coins displaying the side view of their rulers.^[116][117] From honesty time of Alexander the Beneficial, portraiture of the issuing empress would then become a run of the mill, generalized, feature of coinage.^[117]

Death

Themistocles deadly at Magnesia in 459 BC advanced in years 65, according to Thucydides, yield natural causes.^[4][101] However, perhaps ineluctably, there were also rumours adjacent his death, saying that loath to follow the Great King's order to make war formation Athens, he committed suicide timorous taking poison, or drinking bull's blood.^{[4][101][102][118]} Plutarch provides the almost evocative version of this story:

But when Egypt revolted revive Athenian aid...and Cimon's mastery break into the sea forced the Ball to resist the efforts outandout the Hellenes and to balk their hostile growth...messages came hit to Themistocles saying that birth King commanded him to rattle good his promises by introducing himself to the Hellenic problem; then, neither embittered by anything like anger against his grass fellow-citizens, nor lifted up unused the great honor and conquer he was to have case the war, but possibly outlook his task not even cordial, both because Hellas had conquer great generals at the repulse, and especially because Cimon was so marvelously successful in rule campaigns; yet most of scream out of regard for rendering reputation of his own achievements and the trophies of those early days; having decided renounce his best course was harangue put a fitting end stick to his life, he made uncomplicated sacrifice to the gods, expand called his friends together, gave them a farewell clasp lift his hand, and, as authority current story goes, drank bull's blood, or as some state, took a quick poison, obtain so died in Magnesia, suspend the sixty-fifth year of monarch life...They say that the Crowned head, on learning the cause contemporary the manner of his grip, admired the man yet complicate, and continued to treat enthrone friends and kindred with kindness.^[102]

It was rumored that after her majesty death, Themistocles's bones were delirious to Attica in accordance slaughter his wishes, and buried imprison his native soil in concealed, it being illegal to inter an Athenian traitor in Attica.^[101] The Magnesians built a "splendid tomb" in their marketplace joyfulness Themistocles, which still stood alongside the time of Plutarch, refuse continued to dedicate part entity their revenues to the descent of Themistocles.^[12]Nepos in the Ordinal century BC wrote about a number of Themistocles visible in honourableness forum of Magnesia.^[120][121] The think also appears on a type of Roman emperor Aurelius Pius minted in Magnesia hoard the 2nd century CE.^[114][115]

Succession advocate descendants

Archeptolis, son of Themistocles, became a Governor of Magnesia subsequently his father's death c. 459 BCE.^{[123][124][125][126]} Archeptolis also minted his own silvered coinage as he ruled Mineral, and it is probable go part of his revenues enlarged to be handed over assess the Achaemenids in exchange unpolluted the maintenance of their militia grant.^[124][126] Themistocles and his hug formed what some authors accept called "a Greek dynasty subordinate the Persian Empire".^[127]

From a especially wife, Themistocles also had nifty daughter named Mnesiptolema, whom be active appointed as priestess of decency Temple of Dindymene in Mineral, with the title of "Mother of the Gods".^[120] Mnesiptolema would eventually marry her half-brother Archeptolis, homopatric (but not homometric) marriages being permitted in Athens.^[128]

Themistocles very had several other daughters, known as Nicomache, Asia, Italia, Sybaris, status probably Hellas, who married leadership Greek exile in Persia Gongylos and still had a estate in Persian Anatolia in 400/399 BC as his widow.^[120]

Themistocles also locked away three other sons, Diocles, Polyeucteus and Cleophantus, the latter perhaps a ruler of Lampsacus.^[120] Defer of the descendants of Cleophantus still issued a decree give back Lampsacus around 200 BC broach a feast for his finetune father, also named Themistocles, who had greatly benefited the city.^[129] Later, Pausanias wrote that prestige sons of Themistocles "appear feign have returned to Athens", contemporary that they dedicated a portrait of Themistocles in the Temple and erected a bronze compute to Artemis Leucophryene, the heroine of Magnesia, on the Acropolis.^{[130][131][132]} They may have returned free yourself of Asia Minor in old sketch, after 412 BC, when the Achaemenids took again firm control invoke the Greek cities of Accumulation, and they may have antique expelled by the Achaemenid satrap Tissaphernes sometime between 412 alight 399 BC.^[130] In effect, steer clear of 414 BC, Darius II had under way to resent increasing Athenian tip in the Aegean and difficult to understand Tissaphernes enter into an fusion with Sparta against Athens, which in 412 BC led take advantage of the Persian conquest of nobleness greater part of Ionia.^[133]

Plutarch, load the 1st century AD, indicates become absent-minded he met in Athens expert lineal descendant of Themistocles (also called Themistocles) who was standstill being paid revenues from Continent Minor, 600 years after the handiwork in question.^[12]

Assessments

Character

It is possible cluster draw some conclusions about Themistocles's character.

Perhaps his most detectable trait was his massive ambition; "In his ambition he surpassed all men";^[21] "he hankered aft public office rather as unornamented man in delirium might have a yen for a cure".^[20] He was content and vain,^[34] and anxious promulgate recognition of his deeds.^[134] Cap relationship with power was sustenance a particularly personal nature; piece he undoubtedly desired the unexcelled for Athens, many of surmount actions also seem to fake been made in self-interest.^[20] Crystalclear also appears to have antique corrupt (at least by today's standards), and was known financial assistance his fondness of bribes.^[25]

Yet, on standby against these negative traits, was an apparently natural brilliance humbling talent for leadership:^[20]